During pollination where is the pollen transferred

Flowers also have a female part called the pistil. The top of the pistil is called the stigma, and is often sticky. Seeds are made at the base of the pistil, in the ovule. To be pollinated, pollen must be moved from a stamen to the stigma. When pollen from a plant's stamen is transferred to that same plant's stigma, it is called self-pollination.

When pollen from a plant's stamen is transferred to a different plant's stigma, it is called cross-pollination. Cross-pollination produces stronger plants.

The plants must be of the same species. For example, only pollen from a daisy can pollinate another daisy. Pollen from a rose or an apple tree would not work. This pollen tube carries a male gamete to meet a female gamete in an ovule. In a process called fertilisation, the two gametes join and their chromosomes combine, so that the fertilised cell contains a normal complement of chromosomes, with some from each parent flower.

The fertilised ovule goes on to form a seed, which contains a food store and an embryo that will later grow into a new plant. The ovary develops into a fruit to protect the seed. Some flowers, such as avocados, only have one ovule in their ovary, so their fruit only has one seed. Many flowers, such as kiwifruit, have lots of ovules in their ovary, so their fruit contains many seeds. Find out how the artificial control of pollination plays a part in the breeding of new fruit cultivars.

Add to collection. Activity ideas Try one of these actvities with your students: Pollination pairs — students match native flowers with their pollinators, basing predictions on the main characteristics of flowers pollinated by wind, insects or birds. Pass the pollen — students take on the role of flower parts and act out the process of insect pollination.

However, with the advent of monoculture and expanding agricultural land, the balance is constantly disturbed. Pollinators became supplemented with managed bee hives [ 13 , 14 ]. On the other hand, an increase in managed honey bee hives has a negative impact on natural pollinators like bumble bees [ 14 ].

It is suggested that the introduction of honey bees needs to be managed in combination with pollinator habitat and pesticide use in a system called integrated crop pollination [ 15 ].

Global warming will have an effect on both plants and pollinators. Bumble bees were found to be less sensitive to temperature change than managed honey bees [ 9 ]. According to [ 16 ], expected climate change will negatively affect the geographical distribution of five native bees in Brazil which will potentially decrees tomato production by the year Pollinators are necessary for ecosystem services and crop production productivity.

Changes in ecosystems due to global warming as well as agricultural production systems will need to be studied and managed in order to keep ecosystem productivity and crop production sustainable and to feed an increasing world population. Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. Help us write another book on this subject and reach those readers.

Login to your personal dashboard for more detailed statistics on your publications. Edited by Phatlane William Mokwala. Edited by Sven Bode Andersen. We are IntechOpen, the world's leading publisher of Open Access books.

Built by scientists, for scientists. Our readership spans scientists, professors, researchers, librarians, and students, as well as business professionals.

Downloaded: Introduction Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther, which is the male part of the flower, to the stigma, which is on the female part. Cantharophily The flowers in beetle pollinated plants are unspecialized. Chiropterophily Flowers pollinated by bats are large, bowl-shaped, dark to green in color, produce large amounts of nectar and pollen, and smell like rotten fruit.

Melittophily Bees are known to forage flowers for pollen and nectar for their hives. Myophily Flies are attracted by the mimicry of carrion and feces, a phenomenon called sapromyiophily [ 8 ]. Ornithophily Flowers pollinated by birds are red in color, tubular in shape, scented, and nectariferous Medan. Other pollination syndromes In wind pollinated flowers anemophily , the pollen grains are very fine released on dangling anthers. The male wasp is attracted to the scent, lands on the orchid flower, and in the process, transfers pollen.

Some orchids, like the Australian hammer orchid, use scent as well as visual trickery in yet another sexual deception strategy to attract wasps. The flower of this orchid mimics the appearance of a female wasp and emits a pheromone. The male wasp tries to mate with what appears to be a female wasp, and in the process, picks up pollen, which it then transfers to the next counterfeit mate.

After pollen is deposited on the stigma, it must germinate and grow through the style to reach the ovule. The microspores, or the pollen, contain two cells: the pollen tube cell and the generative cell. The pollen tube cell grows into a pollen tube through which the generative cell travels. The germination of the pollen tube requires water, oxygen, and certain chemical signals.

In the meantime, if the generative cell has not already split into two cells, it now divides to form two sperm cells.

The pollen tube is guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids present in the embryo sac, and it enters the ovule sac through the micropyle. Of the two sperm cells, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote; the other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that develops into the endosperm.

Together, these two fertilization events in angiosperms are known as double fertilization Figure 7. After fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter. The fertilized ovule forms the seed, whereas the tissues of the ovary become the fruit, usually enveloping the seed. Figure 7. In angiosperms, one sperm fertilizes the egg to form the 2n zygote, and the other sperm fertilizes the central cell to form the 3nendosperm.

This is called a double fertilization. Figure 8. After fertilization, the zygote divides to form an upper terminal cell and a lower basal cell. The basal cell also divides, giving rise to the suspensor. Wise; scale-bar data from Matt Russell. After fertilization, the zygote divides to form two cells: the upper cell, or terminal cell, and the lower, or basal, cell.

The division of the basal cell gives rise to the suspensor , which eventually makes connection with the maternal tissue. The suspensor provides a route for nutrition to be transported from the mother plant to the growing embryo. The terminal cell also divides, giving rise to a globular-shaped proembryo Figure 8a. In dicots eudicots , the developing embryo has a heart shape, due to the presence of the two rudimentary cotyledons Figure 8b.

In non-endospermic dicots, such as Capsella bursa , the endosperm develops initially, but is then digested, and the food reserves are moved into the two cotyledons.

As the embryo and cotyledons enlarge, they run out of room inside the developing seed, and are forced to bend Figure 8c. Ultimately, the embryo and cotyledons fill the seed Figure 8d , and the seed is ready for dispersal. Embryonic development is suspended after some time, and growth is resumed only when the seed germinates. The developing seedling will rely on the food reserves stored in the cotyledons until the first set of leaves begin photosynthesis.

The mature ovule develops into the seed. A typical seed contains a seed coat, cotyledons, endosperm, and a single embryo Figure 9. Figure 9. The structures of dicot and monocot seeds are shown. Dicots left have two cotyledons.

Monocots, such as corn right , have one cotyledon, called the scutellum; it channels nutrition to the growing embryo. Both monocot and dicot embryos have a plumule that forms the leaves, a hypocotyl that forms the stem, and a radicle that forms the root. The embryonic axis comprises everything between the plumule and the radicle, not including the cotyledon s. The storage of food reserves in angiosperm seeds differs between monocots and dicots. In monocots, such as corn and wheat, the single cotyledon is called a scutellum ; the scutellum is connected directly to the embryo via vascular tissue xylem and phloem.

Food reserves are stored in the large endosperm. Upon germination, enzymes are secreted by the aleurone , a single layer of cells just inside the seed coat that surrounds the endosperm and embryo. The enzymes degrade the stored carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, the products of which are absorbed by the scutellum and transported via a vasculature strand to the developing embryo.

Therefore, the scutellum can be seen to be an absorptive organ, not a storage organ. The two cotyledons in the dicot seed also have vascular connections to the embryo. In endospermic dicots , the food reserves are stored in the endosperm. During germination, the two cotyledons therefore act as absorptive organs to take up the enzymatically released food reserves, much like in monocots monocots, by definition, also have endospermic seeds. Tobacco Nicotiana tabaccum , tomato Solanum lycopersicum , and pepper Capsicum annuum are examples of endospermic dicots.

In non-endospermic dicots , the triploid endosperm develops normally following double fertilization, but the endosperm food reserves are quickly remobilized and moved into the developing cotyledon for storage. The two halves of a peanut seed Arachis hypogaea and the split peas Pisum sativum of split pea soup are individual cotyledons loaded with food reserves.

The seed, along with the ovule, is protected by a seed coat that is formed from the integuments of the ovule sac. In dicots, the seed coat is further divided into an outer coat known as the testa and inner coat known as the tegmen. The embryonic axis consists of three parts: the plumule, the radicle, and the hypocotyl.

The embryonic axis terminates in a radicle the embryonic root , which is the region from which the root will develop. In dicots, the hypocotyls extend above ground, giving rise to the stem of the plant. In monocots, the hypocotyl does not show above ground because monocots do not exhibit stem elongation. The part of the embryonic axis that projects above the cotyledons is known as the epicotyl. The plumule is composed of the epicotyl, young leaves, and the shoot apical meristem.

Upon germination in dicot seeds, the epicotyl is shaped like a hook with the plumule pointing downwards. This shape is called the plumule hook, and it persists as long as germination proceeds in the dark. Therefore, as the epicotyl pushes through the tough and abrasive soil, the plumule is protected from damage.

Upon exposure to light, the hypocotyl hook straightens out, the young foliage leaves face the sun and expand, and the epicotyl continues to elongate.

During this time, the radicle is also growing and producing the primary root. As it grows downward to form the tap root, lateral roots branch off to all sides, producing the typical dicot tap root system.